CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The use and abuse of alcohol is widespread among students. This observation has led a number of writers to conclude that the use of alcohol among university students has become a culture (Matthews, 2004). The implications of the observation are that students who drink alcoholic beverages during high school will continue to do so at university, while those who do not use alcohol are likely to be initiated into the use of the substance during their stay at university. For some students, transition to university is the first experience of being away from home, a dept which presents unique challenges and opportunities (Robins, Frailey, Roberts, & Trzesniewski, 2001). It is during the process of adapting to life away from home that some students may experiment with the use of intoxicating substances.
The widespread use of alcohol on university campuses has led to the need to understand the reasons why students use alcohol. There is a research trend that points to various personality factors, among other reasons, for alcohol use and abuse. Most studies investigating the influence of personality characteristics on alcohol use among students argue that sociability, sensation-seeking, depressed affect, and impulsivity are personality factors that can predict the use of alcohol (Aneshensel & Huba, 1983; Wills, Sand, & Yeager, 2000; Youniss & Yates, 1997).
For instance, Johnson, Sheets, and Kristeller (2001) found that both sensation-seeking and conscientiousness are strongly associated with alcohol consumption. In some of the studies, personality traits are typically seen as mediating or moderating the relationship between biological, psychological, social, environmental factors, and subsequent alcohol use and misuse (Sher, Trull, Bartholow, & Vieth, 1999). The consistency of results,
2
showing that one or an other personality factor was responsible for alcohol use, made researchers to hypothesize the existence of an underlying, comprehensive personality factor called the “addictive personality”. Researchers then tried to empirically identify the addictive personality. Unfortunately, research conducted over a period of decades could not confirm the existence of the so-called “addictive personality” (Benjamin & Wulfert, 2005). Although the underlying addictive personality could not be established, studies continued to confirm that certain personality traits relate to patterns of drinking. For example, sensation-seeking has been associated with higher rates of alcohol consumption (Johnson et al., 2001; Youniss & Yates, 1997). There is no agreement regarding the models that are used to study the relationship between personality and alcohol use. Some researchers argue that the method of focusing exclusively on individual personality traits is inadequate for studying the complex relationships between alcohol use and selective personality variables. These researchers recommend that personality be studied in its totality.
In recent times the rediscovery of the Five Factor Model (FFM) has established the study of personality as a global factor and not as individual traits. Wood, Nagoshi, and Dennis (1992) studied the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire scales of impulsivity, sensation seeking, and empathy and extended the work on personality by using the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donalive, & Kentler, 1991). Recent developments indicate that the idea of the “addictive personality” which was pursued without success in the past can now be revived in the context of the FFM.
The FFM is an empirical personality theory, or framework that was formulated in the 1960s. However, Allport and Odbert were the first researchers to identify the trait- descriptive words in the English language in 1936 (Howard & Howard, 1995). Those trait names were then subjected to factor analysis (Digman, 1990; McCrae & John, 1992; Tupes & Christal, 1992). The FFM argues that there are five factors that are sufficient as a measure of an individual’s personality. This theory has been widely accepted, and has been found to be useful in describing globally representative personality traits (Costa &
3
McCrae, 1992; Goldberg, 1992). It would be valuable to correlate any of the FFM measures with alcohol use scales, to see if there will be a significant relationship between the two variables in a South African student population.
1.2 Statement of the problem
The present study uses the FFM to predict the use of alcohol among students in a South African university. There are studies that have used the FFM to predict risk behaviours, including the use of alcohol among students. However, most of them concentrate on the domain factors. While this level of analysis is important, it is equally important to study the facet levels as described by the FFM. Using the NEO PI-R, the facet-level factors of personality will be related to alcohol use, so that a better understanding of the relationships will be established.
Furthermore, the present study recognizes that the relationship between personality and alcohol use is not linear. In fact, Vaillant (1983) found moderate drinkers to be behaviourally well-adjusted than heavy alcohol drinking individuals. Parenting may influence the development of personality factors that lead to the use or misuse of alcohol (Andrews, Hops, Tildesley, & Harris, 1993).
1.3 Background of the study
Past research has focused on singular personality factors such as conscientiousness, aggression, sensation-seeking, and impulsivity in relation to the use of alcohol (Aneshensel & Huba, 1983; Cook, Young, Taylor, & Beddford, 1997; Hovarth & Zuckerman, 1993; Leonard, Collins, & Quigley, 2003; Wills, Sand, & Yeager, 2000; Youniss & Yates, 1997). Some studies used two or more personality traits (e.g. Caspi, Begg, Dickson, Harrington, Langley, Moffitt, & Silva, 1997). This approach however, has some limitations because an individual’s personality cannot be dominated and influenced by a single trait. It is also likely that various aspects of an individual’s
Field Cod
4
personality will interact and influence one another. Using single or selective personality factors makes it difficult to see the relationships that may be there between personality and different types of behaviours, especially alcohol use. To overcome the limitations of using single personality variables to predict alcohol use, it is necessary to measure personality as a whole. This line of thinking has been demonstrated in a number of studies (e.g. Miller, Lynam, Zimmerman, Logan, Leukefeld, & Clayton, 2004; Trobst, Wiggins, Costa, Herbst, McCrae, & Masters III, 2000). The present study therefore, follows this line of research by using a comprehensive measure of personality traits to evaluate the association between personality and alcohol use among students.
Research has furthermore indicated that the association between personality and alcohol use is not straight-forward of which there might be some other factors intervening between the personality-alcohol relationship and parenting is one such factor. This is because parenting has been found to be influential in promoting the development of normal personality traits (Reti, Samuels, Eaton, Bienvenu III, Costa, & Nestadt, 2002). In addition, parenting has been related to problem behaviours and alcoholism (e.g. Allen, Hauser, & Borman-Spurrell, 1996; Bernardi, Jones, & Tennant, 1989).
1.4 Aim of the study
The present study is significant in that it investigates personality factors at a different level, namely, the facet level. Much is known about the domain level aspects of personality and their relationship with problem behaviours. For instance, the FFM was studied in relation to smoking (Terracciano & Costa, 2003) and sex (Heaven, Crocker, Edwards, Preston, Ward, & Woodbridge, 2003). The main aim of the present study was to focus on the facet level of personality in relation to alcohol consumption, an uncommon approach among researchers. It was also important to control the parenting variable in order to investigate how parental bonding influences the relationship between personality and alcohol use in the current population.
5
1.5 Motivation of the study
Only a few studies have been conducted till date to compare personality traits for alcohol using and non-alcohol using students, especially in South African universities, using the NEO PI-R as the instrument to measure the “Big Five” model of personality (e.g. Heuchert, Parker, Stumpf, & Myburgh, 2000). Knowing the FFM traits that can predict the use and non-use of alcohol among university students will help to find strategies to reduce the consumption of alcohol among vulnerable students at the University of Limpopo. The researcher was also curious to establish those traits that can predict the use of alcohol. In addition, the relationship between alcohol and personality is not a straight- forward, cause-effect relationship (Andrews et al., 1993). There was a need to investigate the contributions of early parenting experiences to the development of alcohol use in a non-clinical sample of students, especially since the association has been found to exist in clinical groups.
1.6 Need for the study
There are very few studies on the FFM and alcohol use in South Africa. Research that has been conducted between personality (using the FFM) and alcohol use tends to suggest that the relationship is significant. There was a need to study such a relationship in South Africa, so that the personality factors related to alcohol use among African students will be known. Another variable to study is early parenting and it will be interesting to study it in South Africa; especially because parenting in the African cultural context may differ from parenting in other cultures.
1.7 Area of the study
The study was conducted among students at the University of Limpopo, Turfloop Campus. The University is situated in the Mamabolo area, 30 kilometres east of Polokwane, the seat of the Limpopo Province government.
6
1.8 Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study are enumerated as follows:
1.8.1 To establish the personality traits that can predict and differentiate between Abstainers, Moderate drinkers, and Heavy drinkers.
1.8.2 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Neuroticism (N) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.3 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Extraversion (E) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.4 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Openness to experience (O) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.5 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Agreeableness (A) and alcohol consumption. 1.8.6 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Conscientiousness (C) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.7 A further objective of the study was to investigate the role that parenting plays in the relationship between personality and alcohol use.
1.9 Definition of concepts
1.9.1 Five Factor Model: An empirical theory or framework of personality. It posits that there are five primary factors that explain all aspects of human personality.
7
1.9.2 Abstainers: Individuals who report that they have not consumed an alcoholic beverage in the last six months, and have never before drunk alcohol with the intention of getting drunk and take less than one drink per session (Engs, 1975; Laukkanen, Shemeikka, Viinamaki, Polkki, & Lehtonen, 2001).
1.9.3 Moderate drinkers: Individuals who drank less than once per month in the past six months, or up to four times per month, and have drunk in order to be drunk at least once, or up to three times, in a month and take two to four drinks per session (Engs, 1975; Laukkanen et al., 2001).
1.9.4 Heavy drinkers: Individuals who, in the past six months, drank at least five to ten times, and have drunk to be drunk at least four times, to more than ten times, in a month and drank five to more than six drinks per session (Engs, 1975; Laukkanen et al., 2001).
1.10 Chapter outlay Chapter One gives a brief overview of the study, outlines the objectives based on the research problem and also includes a definition of relevant concepts. The next chapter (Chapter Two) comprises of extensive reviews of literature regarding existing aspects of the present study such as the FFM in relation to alcohol use amongst university students. It also reviews the influence of parenting on the relationship between personality and alcohol use. Chapter Three discusses and explains the methodological aspects of the study such as the research design, description of the population, sampling method, as well as the instruments and the procedures used. The results are presented in Chapter Four which includes the classification of the participants according to their rates of alcohol consumption, the FFM aspects of personality in relation to alcohol use, prevalence of risky drinking by parental attachment and prevalence of risky drinking by risk behaviour. In Chapter Five a discussion is presented of the research questions, hypotheses and literature review. Finally, Chapter Six is the conclusion in which implications of the results, limitations of the study and recommendations of future research are outlined.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The use and abuse of alcohol is widespread among students. This observation has led a number of writers to conclude that the use of alcohol among university students has become a culture (Matthews, 2004). The implications of the observation are that students who drink alcoholic beverages during high school will continue to do so at university, while those who do not use alcohol are likely to be initiated into the use of the substance during their stay at university. For some students, transition to university is the first experience of being away from home, a dept which presents unique challenges and opportunities (Robins, Frailey, Roberts, & Trzesniewski, 2001). It is during the process of adapting to life away from home that some students may experiment with the use of intoxicating substances.
The widespread use of alcohol on university campuses has led to the need to understand the reasons why students use alcohol. There is a research trend that points to various personality factors, among other reasons, for alcohol use and abuse. Most studies investigating the influence of personality characteristics on alcohol use among students argue that sociability, sensation-seeking, depressed affect, and impulsivity are personality factors that can predict the use of alcohol (Aneshensel & Huba, 1983; Wills, Sand, & Yeager, 2000; Youniss & Yates, 1997).
For instance, Johnson, Sheets, and Kristeller (2001) found that both sensation-seeking and conscientiousness are strongly associated with alcohol consumption. In some of the studies, personality traits are typically seen as mediating or moderating the relationship between biological, psychological, social, environmental factors, and subsequent alcohol use and misuse (Sher, Trull, Bartholow, & Vieth, 1999). The consistency of results,
2
showing that one or an other personality factor was responsible for alcohol use, made researchers to hypothesize the existence of an underlying, comprehensive personality factor called the “addictive personality”. Researchers then tried to empirically identify the addictive personality. Unfortunately, research conducted over a period of decades could not confirm the existence of the so-called “addictive personality” (Benjamin & Wulfert, 2005). Although the underlying addictive personality could not be established, studies continued to confirm that certain personality traits relate to patterns of drinking. For example, sensation-seeking has been associated with higher rates of alcohol consumption (Johnson et al., 2001; Youniss & Yates, 1997). There is no agreement regarding the models that are used to study the relationship between personality and alcohol use. Some researchers argue that the method of focusing exclusively on individual personality traits is inadequate for studying the complex relationships between alcohol use and selective personality variables. These researchers recommend that personality be studied in its totality.
In recent times the rediscovery of the Five Factor Model (FFM) has established the study of personality as a global factor and not as individual traits. Wood, Nagoshi, and Dennis (1992) studied the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire scales of impulsivity, sensation seeking, and empathy and extended the work on personality by using the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donalive, & Kentler, 1991). Recent developments indicate that the idea of the “addictive personality” which was pursued without success in the past can now be revived in the context of the FFM.
The FFM is an empirical personality theory, or framework that was formulated in the 1960s. However, Allport and Odbert were the first researchers to identify the trait- descriptive words in the English language in 1936 (Howard & Howard, 1995). Those trait names were then subjected to factor analysis (Digman, 1990; McCrae & John, 1992; Tupes & Christal, 1992). The FFM argues that there are five factors that are sufficient as a measure of an individual’s personality. This theory has been widely accepted, and has been found to be useful in describing globally representative personality traits (Costa &
3
McCrae, 1992; Goldberg, 1992). It would be valuable to correlate any of the FFM measures with alcohol use scales, to see if there will be a significant relationship between the two variables in a South African student population.
1.2 Statement of the problem
The present study uses the FFM to predict the use of alcohol among students in a South African university. There are studies that have used the FFM to predict risk behaviours, including the use of alcohol among students. However, most of them concentrate on the domain factors. While this level of analysis is important, it is equally important to study the facet levels as described by the FFM. Using the NEO PI-R, the facet-level factors of personality will be related to alcohol use, so that a better understanding of the relationships will be established.
Furthermore, the present study recognizes that the relationship between personality and alcohol use is not linear. In fact, Vaillant (1983) found moderate drinkers to be behaviourally well-adjusted than heavy alcohol drinking individuals. Parenting may influence the development of personality factors that lead to the use or misuse of alcohol (Andrews, Hops, Tildesley, & Harris, 1993).
1.3 Background of the study
Past research has focused on singular personality factors such as conscientiousness, aggression, sensation-seeking, and impulsivity in relation to the use of alcohol (Aneshensel & Huba, 1983; Cook, Young, Taylor, & Beddford, 1997; Hovarth & Zuckerman, 1993; Leonard, Collins, & Quigley, 2003; Wills, Sand, & Yeager, 2000; Youniss & Yates, 1997). Some studies used two or more personality traits (e.g. Caspi, Begg, Dickson, Harrington, Langley, Moffitt, & Silva, 1997). This approach however, has some limitations because an individual’s personality cannot be dominated and influenced by a single trait. It is also likely that various aspects of an individual’s
Field Cod
4
personality will interact and influence one another. Using single or selective personality factors makes it difficult to see the relationships that may be there between personality and different types of behaviours, especially alcohol use. To overcome the limitations of using single personality variables to predict alcohol use, it is necessary to measure personality as a whole. This line of thinking has been demonstrated in a number of studies (e.g. Miller, Lynam, Zimmerman, Logan, Leukefeld, & Clayton, 2004; Trobst, Wiggins, Costa, Herbst, McCrae, & Masters III, 2000). The present study therefore, follows this line of research by using a comprehensive measure of personality traits to evaluate the association between personality and alcohol use among students.
Research has furthermore indicated that the association between personality and alcohol use is not straight-forward of which there might be some other factors intervening between the personality-alcohol relationship and parenting is one such factor. This is because parenting has been found to be influential in promoting the development of normal personality traits (Reti, Samuels, Eaton, Bienvenu III, Costa, & Nestadt, 2002). In addition, parenting has been related to problem behaviours and alcoholism (e.g. Allen, Hauser, & Borman-Spurrell, 1996; Bernardi, Jones, & Tennant, 1989).
1.4 Aim of the study
The present study is significant in that it investigates personality factors at a different level, namely, the facet level. Much is known about the domain level aspects of personality and their relationship with problem behaviours. For instance, the FFM was studied in relation to smoking (Terracciano & Costa, 2003) and sex (Heaven, Crocker, Edwards, Preston, Ward, & Woodbridge, 2003). The main aim of the present study was to focus on the facet level of personality in relation to alcohol consumption, an uncommon approach among researchers. It was also important to control the parenting variable in order to investigate how parental bonding influences the relationship between personality and alcohol use in the current population.
5
1.5 Motivation of the study
Only a few studies have been conducted till date to compare personality traits for alcohol using and non-alcohol using students, especially in South African universities, using the NEO PI-R as the instrument to measure the “Big Five” model of personality (e.g. Heuchert, Parker, Stumpf, & Myburgh, 2000). Knowing the FFM traits that can predict the use and non-use of alcohol among university students will help to find strategies to reduce the consumption of alcohol among vulnerable students at the University of Limpopo. The researcher was also curious to establish those traits that can predict the use of alcohol. In addition, the relationship between alcohol and personality is not a straight- forward, cause-effect relationship (Andrews et al., 1993). There was a need to investigate the contributions of early parenting experiences to the development of alcohol use in a non-clinical sample of students, especially since the association has been found to exist in clinical groups.
1.6 Need for the study
There are very few studies on the FFM and alcohol use in South Africa. Research that has been conducted between personality (using the FFM) and alcohol use tends to suggest that the relationship is significant. There was a need to study such a relationship in South Africa, so that the personality factors related to alcohol use among African students will be known. Another variable to study is early parenting and it will be interesting to study it in South Africa; especially because parenting in the African cultural context may differ from parenting in other cultures.
1.7 Area of the study
The study was conducted among students at the University of Limpopo, Turfloop Campus. The University is situated in the Mamabolo area, 30 kilometres east of Polokwane, the seat of the Limpopo Province government.
6
1.8 Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study are enumerated as follows:
1.8.1 To establish the personality traits that can predict and differentiate between Abstainers, Moderate drinkers, and Heavy drinkers.
1.8.2 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Neuroticism (N) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.3 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Extraversion (E) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.4 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Openness to experience (O) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.5 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Agreeableness (A) and alcohol consumption. 1.8.6 To have a clearer understanding of the relationship between facet scales of Conscientiousness (C) and alcohol consumption.
1.8.7 A further objective of the study was to investigate the role that parenting plays in the relationship between personality and alcohol use.
1.9 Definition of concepts
1.9.1 Five Factor Model: An empirical theory or framework of personality. It posits that there are five primary factors that explain all aspects of human personality.
7
1.9.2 Abstainers: Individuals who report that they have not consumed an alcoholic beverage in the last six months, and have never before drunk alcohol with the intention of getting drunk and take less than one drink per session (Engs, 1975; Laukkanen, Shemeikka, Viinamaki, Polkki, & Lehtonen, 2001).
1.9.3 Moderate drinkers: Individuals who drank less than once per month in the past six months, or up to four times per month, and have drunk in order to be drunk at least once, or up to three times, in a month and take two to four drinks per session (Engs, 1975; Laukkanen et al., 2001).
1.9.4 Heavy drinkers: Individuals who, in the past six months, drank at least five to ten times, and have drunk to be drunk at least four times, to more than ten times, in a month and drank five to more than six drinks per session (Engs, 1975; Laukkanen et al., 2001).
1.10 Chapter outlay Chapter One gives a brief overview of the study, outlines the objectives based on the research problem and also includes a definition of relevant concepts. The next chapter (Chapter Two) comprises of extensive reviews of literature regarding existing aspects of the present study such as the FFM in relation to alcohol use amongst university students. It also reviews the influence of parenting on the relationship between personality and alcohol use. Chapter Three discusses and explains the methodological aspects of the study such as the research design, description of the population, sampling method, as well as the instruments and the procedures used. The results are presented in Chapter Four which includes the classification of the participants according to their rates of alcohol consumption, the FFM aspects of personality in relation to alcohol use, prevalence of risky drinking by parental attachment and prevalence of risky drinking by risk behaviour. In Chapter Five a discussion is presented of the research questions, hypotheses and literature review. Finally, Chapter Six is the conclusion in which implications of the results, limitations of the study and recommendations of future research are outlined.
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